ATTITUDES AND GESTURES

The Scriptures richly abound in references to forms of posture and gestures, the descriptions in the Bible being sufficient to show that they were much the same as those practiced in the Middle East today. These Orientals are considerably more demonstrative and less inhibited in the expression of their feelings than are many of the Western peoples. Either accompanied by words or without words, attitudes and gestures carried considerable force and meaning.

Prayer and Homage. Standing. Among the Hebrews and many of the other nations mentioned in the Bible, there was no set form of posture for prayer. All the attitudes assumed were highly respectful. Standing was a common posture. Jesus spoke of this position for prayer. (Mr 11:25) Immediately after being baptized, Jesus was evidently standing and praying when the heaven was opened up and the holy spirit in bodily shape like a dove came down upon him, and God’s own voice was heard from the heavens.—Lu 3:21, 22.

Kneeling was a common attitude of prayer. Jesus himself knelt in the garden of Gethsemane. (Lu 22:41) In representing the nation of Israel in prayer Solomon knelt at the inauguration of the temple. (1Ki 8:54) While many of the instances in the Bible use the word “knees” in the plural, it may be that at times a person would kneel upon one knee, as is done sometimes by modern Orientals.—Ac 9:40; 20:36; 21:5; Eph 3:14.

Bowing. The Jews, wherever they were found, when worshiping turned their faces toward the city of Jerusalem and its temple. (1Ki 8:42, 44; Da 6:10) In vision Ezekiel saw 25 men with their backs toward the temple of Jehovah, bowing with their faces toward the E. (Eze 8:16) Temples of the sun worshipers were built in such a manner that the entrance was on the W side, making the worshipers face E on entering. But the temple of Jehovah was built with the entrance in the E so that the worshipers of Jehovah there turned their backs on the place of the rising of the sun.

Extending the arms. In the postures of standing and kneeling, the palms of the hands would sometimes be spread out to the heavens, or the hands would be lifted up or extended forward as in supplication. (1Ki 8:22; 2Ch 6:13; Ne 8:6) The face would sometimes be uplifted (Job 22:26), or a person might lift up his eyes toward the heavens.—Mt 14:19; Mr 7:34; Joh 17:1.

Sitting and prostrating. Sitting was another posture employed in prayer, the petitioner evidently kneeling and then sitting back upon his heels. (1Ch 17:16) From this position he could bow his head or rest it on his bosom. Or, as Elijah did, he might crouch to the earth and put his face between his knees. (1Ki 18:42) ‘Falling down’ or ‘falling on one’s face’ is often the way the Scriptures express a person’s prostrating himself. This was usually done by falling on the knees and bowing forward, resting on the hands or, more often, the elbows, with the head touching the ground. (Ge 24:26, 48; Ne 8:6; Nu 16:22, 45; Mt 26:39) In great sorrow or very fervent prayer the petitioner might actually lie on his face with his body outstretched. In cases of extreme distress, the petitioner might wear sackcloth. (1Ch 21:16) False worshipers also bowed down before their idols. (Ex 20:5; Nu 25:2; 2Ki 5:18; Da 3:5-12) Additionally, false worshipers would often kiss their idols.—1Ki 19:18.

Religious gestures toward an object. Job pointed out the danger of letting one’s heart be enticed toward some object of reverence such as the sun or the moon to the point of making a worshipful gesture toward it, perhaps placing one’s hand to one’s mouth in a kiss the way pagan moon worshipers and those giving homage to idols did. Job realized that this was a denial of the true God and would require an accounting for such error.—Job 31:26-28.

Christian postures for prayer. Jesus prayed publicly, in sincerity, as did Paul and others. He also recommended private prayer. (Mt 6:5, 6) But Jesus condemned ostentatiousness in making long prayers for a pretense, a practice into which some of the scribes had fallen. (Mr 12:40; Lu 20:47) However, Christians adopted many of the customs and practices of the Jewish synagogue—ones that God did not disapprove—and the same attitudes and postures of prayer are mentioned in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Nowhere do they give support to a facial or bodily attitude of assumed piety and sanctimoniousness. They do not make any given posture, such as placing the palms together or clasping the hands when offering prayer, essential. In fact, prayers can be made silently and completely without outward manifestation, when the individual is carrying on an assigned duty or is faced with an emergency. (Compare Ne 2:4.) Christians are told to carry on prayer “with every form of prayer and supplication.”—Eph 6:18.

Respect, Humility. Kneeling. The attitudes and postures of the Orientals in expressing respect for one another and especially when petitioning superiors were much the same as the attitudes assumed in prayer. We find examples of kneeling in supplication before others. This was not in worship of the person but in acknowledgment of that one’s position or office, with deep respect.—Mt 17:14; Mr 1:40; 10:17; 2Ki 1:13.

Bowing was more frequently used in greeting others, in approaching them on a matter of business, or in displaying a high degree of respect. Jacob bowed seven times on meeting Esau. (Ge 33:3) Solomon, even though he was king, showed respect to his mother by bowing to her.—1Ki 2:19.

Bowing could also be a symbol of acknowledgment of defeat. (Isa 60:14) Those persons defeated might appear before their conqueror in sackcloth and, additionally, with ropes upon their heads in an appeal for mercy. (1Ki 20:31, 32) Some think that the ropes mentioned were put about their necks to symbolize their captivity and submission.

Although it was a common thing for the Jews to bow before authority to show respect, Mordecai refused to bow before Haman. This was because Haman, as an Agagite, was very likely an Amalekite, concerning whom Jehovah had said that he would completely wipe out their remembrance from under the heavens and that he would have war with Amalek from generation to generation. (Ex 17:14-16) Since bowing down or prostration would have a connotation of peace toward Haman, Mordecai refused to perform this act, because he would have violated God’s command in doing so.—Es 3:5.

Prostrating. Joshua prostrated himself before an angel, “as prince of the army of Jehovah,” not in worship, but in acknowledgment of the superior office the angel held and of the fact that the angel was obviously sent from Jehovah with a command for him.—Jos 5:14.

When Jesus was on earth, persons would prostrate themselves before him to petition and to do obeisance to him, and he did not reprove them. (Lu 5:12; Joh 9:38) This was because he was the appointed King, the King-Designate, as he himself said: “God’s royal majesty has approached” (ED); “The kingdom of God has drawn near.” (NW, Mr 1:15) Jesus was the heir to the throne of David and therefore was rightfully honored as a king.—Mt 21:9; Joh 12:13-15.

However, the apostles of Jesus Christ refused to permit others to prostrate themselves before them. This was because, in the instances described, prostration was done as an attitude of worship, as though the power of the holy spirit in the apostles, which performed the healing and other powerful works, were their own. The apostles realized that the power was from God and that credit for these things should be given to him and all worship should be directed toward Jehovah through Jesus Christ, of whom they were merely the representatives.—Ac 10:25, 26.

In connection with the respect paid to Jesus, the word often used is pro·sky·ne´o, a word having the basic meaning “do obeisance,” but also translated “worship.” (Mt 2:11; Lu 4:8) Jesus was not accepting worship, which belongs to God alone (Mt 4:10), but recognized the act of the one doing obeisance as recognition of the authority given Him by God. The angel whom Jesus Christ sent to bring the Revelation to John expressed the principle that man’s worship belongs only to God, when he refused to accept worship from John.—Re 19:10; see OBEISANCE; WORSHIP.

Covering the head was a sign of respect on the part of women. This custom was followed in the Christian congregation. In discussing the principle of Christian headship, the apostle Paul stated: “Every woman that prays or prophesies with her head uncovered shames her head . . . That is why the woman ought to have a sign of authority upon her head because of the angels.”—1Co 11:3-10; see HEADSHIP.

Removing one’s sandals was a gesture of respect or reverence. Moses was commanded to do this at the burning bush and Joshua in the presence of an angel. (Ex 3:5; Jos 5:15) Since the tabernacle and the temple were holy places, the priests are said to have performed their duties at the sanctuary barefoot. Likewise, the loosening of the laces of another person’s sandals or bearing his sandals for him was considered a menial duty and an expression of one’s humility and consciousness of insignificance when contrasted with his master. It is still a practice in the Middle East that when one enters a house, his sandals are taken off, sometimes by a servant.—Mt 3:11; Joh 1:27; see SANDAL.

Pouring water on another’s hands. Elisha was identified as the minister or servant of Elijah by the expression “[he] poured out water upon the hands of Elijah.” This was a service performed particularly after meals. In the Middle East it was not the custom to use knives and forks, but fingers, and the servant would afterward pour water over the hands of his master for washing. (2Ki 3:11) A similar practice was the washing of feet, performed as an act of hospitality, also of respect and, in certain relationships, of humility.—Joh 13:5; Ge 24:32; 43:24; 1Ti 5:10.

Agreement, Sharing Together. Handshaking and striking the palms of the hands were gestures employed to express agreement, ratification, or confirmation of a contract or bargain. (Ezr 10:19) The Scriptures warn against doing this in guaranteeing security of a loan for another person. (Pr 6:1-3; 17:18; 22:26) Joint participation, or sharing together, was also denoted by a handshake or grasping of another’s hand.—2Ki 10:15; Ga 2:9.

Blessing. Putting hands on head; lifting hands. Since the Hebrew word ba·rakh´ has to do with bending the knees and kneeling as well as blessing, it is probable that, when receiving a blessing, persons knelt down and bowed themselves toward the one giving the blessing. Then the one blessing would put his hands on the head of the one being blessed. (Ge 48:13, 14; Mr 10:16) In bestowing a blessing upon a group of people, it was common to lift the hands toward them as the blessing was uttered.—Le 9:22; Lu 24:50.

Swearing. Raising hand; placing hand under thigh. In making an oath, it was customary to raise the right hand. God speaks of himself as doing this, symbolically. (De 32:40; Isa 62:8) The angel in Daniel’s vision raised both his right hand and his left to heaven to utter an oath. (Da 12:7) Another method of confirming an oath was to place one’s hand under the other’s thigh (hip), as Abraham’s steward did in swearing that he would get a wife for Isaac from Abraham’s relatives (Ge 24:2, 9), and as Joseph did for Jacob in swearing not to bury Jacob in Egypt. (Ge 47:29-31) The word “thigh” applies to the upper part of the leg from the hip to the knee, in which the femur is located. According to the Jewish rabbi Rashbam, this method of swearing was used when a superior adjured an inferior, such as a master his servant or a father his son, who also owes him obedience. And according to another Jewish scholar, Abraham Ibn Ezra, it was the custom in those days for a servant to take an oath in this manner, placing his hand under his master’s thigh, the latter sitting upon his hand. This signified that the servant was under his master’s authority.—The Soncino Chumash, edited by A. Cohen, London, 1956, p. 122.

Grief, Shame. Throwing dust on the head; ripping garments; wearing sackcloth. Grief was usually accompanied by weeping (Ge 50:1-3; Joh 11:35), often by bowing the head sadly (Isa 58:5), by throwing dust on one’s head (Jos 7:6), or by sitting on the ground (Job 2:13; Isa 3:26). Grief was often expressed by the ripping of garments (1Sa 4:12; Job 2:12; see RIPPING OF GARMENTS) and sometimes by putting ashes on the head. (2Sa 13:19) When the Jews were condemned to destruction at the hands of their enemies by the order of King Ahasuerus, “sackcloth and ashes themselves came to be spread out as a couch for many.” (Es 4:3) Jehovah warned Jerusalem to gird on sackcloth and wallow in ashes for the trouble coming against her. (Jer 6:26) Micah told those of the Philistine city of Aphrah to “wallow in the very dust.”—Mic 1:10.

Cutting off or pulling out hair; beating breast. Cutting off the hair (Job 1:20), pulling some of the hair out of one’s own beard (Ezr 9:3), covering the head (2Sa 15:30; Es 6:12), covering the mustache (Eze 24:17; Mic 3:7), and laying one’s hands on his own head denoted grief or shame, even to the point of being stunned. (2Sa 13:19; Jer 2:37) Some believe that the latter gesture signified that the heavy hand of God’s affliction was resting on the mourner. Isaiah walked about naked and barefoot as a sign of the shame to come upon Egypt and Ethiopia. (Isa 20:2-5) Under the feeling of unusual grief or contrition one might beat the breast in grief (Mt 11:17; Lu 23:27), or slap the thigh for regret, shame, and humiliation or mourning.—Jer 31:19; Eze 21:12.

Anger, Ridicule, Insult, Calling Down Evil. Wagging the head; slapping another’s face. Generally accompanied by words, various gestures denoted strong expressions of anger, animosity, derision, reproach, contempt, and so forth, toward others. Among them were gestures with the mouth and wagging the head or the hand (2Ki 19:21; Ps 22:7; 44:14; 109:25; Zep 2:15), a slap in the face (Job 16:10; Mt 5:39; Joh 18:22), and pulling out the hair of another’s beard (Isa 50:6). Jesus suffered the highest forms of indignity before the Jewish high court by being spit on, slapped, having his face covered, and then being hit with fists and taunted with the words: “Prophesy to us, you Christ. Who is it that struck you?” (Mt 26:67, 68; Mr 14:65) Afterward he was given similar treatment by the soldiers.—Mt 27:30; Mr 15:19; Joh 19:3.

Dust throwing was another form of contempt. Shimei employed this against David along with cursing and throwing stones at him. (2Sa 16:13) As an evidence of the fury of the mob as Paul made his defense before them in Jerusalem, they raised their voices, crying out and throwing their outer garments about and tossing dust into the air.—Ac 22:22, 23.

Clapping the hands might be a gesture merely to command attention, as at Joshua 15:18. More often it was a sign of anger (Nu 24:10), contempt or ridicule (Job 27:23; La 2:15), sorrow (Eze 6:11), or animosity, rejoicing at bad that befell a rival, a hated enemy, or an oppressor; it was sometimes accompanied by stamping of the feet.—Eze 25:6; Na 3:19.

Appointing. Anointing. Certain gestures were employed to represent an appointment to office or authority. At the inauguration of the priesthood, Aaron was anointed with the holy anointing oil. (Le 8:12) Kings were anointed. (1Sa 16:13; 1Ki 1:39) King Cyrus of Persia was not literally anointed by a representative of God but was figuratively spoken of as Jehovah’s anointed one because of his appointment to conquer Babylon and to release God’s people. (Isa 45:1) Elisha was ‘anointed’ by being appointed but was never literally anointed with oil. (1Ki 19:16, 19) Jesus was anointed by his Father Jehovah, not with oil, but with holy spirit. (Isa 61:1; Lu 4:18, 21) Through him, his spirit-begotten brothers making up the Christian congregation are anointed. (2Co 1:21; Ac 2:33) This anointing appoints, commissions, and qualifies them as ministers of God.—1Jo 2:20; 2Co 3:5, 6; see ANOINTED, ANOINTING.

The laying on of hands was a method of designating the appointment of a person to an office or a duty, as in the case of the seven men who were appointed by the apostles to care for the food distribution in the congregation at Jerusalem. (Ac 6:6) Timothy was appointed to a particular service by the body of older men in the congregation. (1Ti 4:14) Later he was delegated by the apostle Paul to make appointments of others, which he was admonished to do only after careful consideration.—1Ti 5:22.

The laying on of hands also had other significances, one being the acknowledgment of something, as at Exodus 29:10, 15, where Aaron and his sons acknowledged the sacrifices as being offered in their behalf. Similar meaning is found in Leviticus 4:15.

The laying on of hands was also used to designate certain ones to whom benefits or power would flow, as in Jesus’ healing (Lu 4:40) and in the holy spirit’s coming upon those upon whom Paul laid his hands. (Ac 19:6) This does not mean that the spirit passed through the hands of Paul, but that as Christ’s representative, he was authorized to designate, in harmony with the requirements laid down, who would receive gifts of the spirit. (See also Ac 8:14-19.) That it was not necessary to lay on hands to transmit the gifts of the spirit was shown by the fact that in the case of Cornelius and his household the apostle Peter was merely present when they were given holy spirit and the gift of tongues.—Ac 10:44-46.

Favor. Standing before a superior. Favor and recognition were represented by standing before an authority, since permission was required to enter into the presence of a king. (Pr 22:29; Lu 1:19; 21:36) At Revelation 7:9, 15 a great crowd is shown as standing before the throne, indicating that they have favored recognition before God.

To speak of lifting up another person’s head was, at times, a symbolic way of signifying his being raised or restored to favor.—Ge 40:13, 21; Jer 52:31.

Filling Hands With Power. The filling of the hands of the priests with power of the priestly office was represented by Moses when, as mediator, he put the various items to be sacrificed on the hands of Aaron and his sons and waved the offering to and fro before Jehovah. The waving to and fro represented constant presentation before Jehovah.—Le 8:25-27.

Friendship. Kissing; washing feet; anointing head. Friendship was expressed by a kiss (Ge 27:26; 2Sa 19:39), and on occasions of greater emotion, falling on the neck in embrace along with kissing and tears. (Ge 33:4; 45:14, 15; 46:29; Lu 15:20; Ac 20:37) There were three gestures that were always considered necessary as marks of hospitality toward a guest: kissing him in greeting, washing his feet, and anointing his head.—Lu 7:44-46.

In the reclining manner of eating that was practiced during the days Jesus was on earth, to lean on another’s bosom was an attitude of intimate friendship or favor, and this was known as the bosom position. (Joh 13:23, 25) This custom was the basis of the illustrations in Luke 16:22, 23 and John 1:18.

Eating another’s bread with him was symbolic of friendship and peace toward him. (Ge 31:54; Ex 2:20; 18:12) To turn thereafter to do him harm was considered the vilest treachery. Of this the traitor Judas was guilty.—Ps 41:9; Joh 13:18.

Innocence, and Denial of Responsibility. Washing hands. Innocence in a matter or the act of relieving oneself of responsibility was figuratively demonstrated by one’s washing one’s hands. (De 21:6) In this way the psalmist declares his innocence at Psalm 73:13; see also Psalm 26:6. Pilate tried to evade his responsibility in connection with the death of Jesus by washing his hands before the crowd, saying: “I am innocent of the blood of this man. You yourselves must see to it.”—Mt 27:24.

Shaking out the garments. Disclaiming of further responsibility was shown by Paul when he shook out his garments before the Jews in Corinth to whom he had preached and who opposed him, and then said: “Let your blood be upon your own heads. I am clean. From now on I will go to people of the nations.” (Ac 18:6) When Nehemiah shook out his “bosom,” that is, the bosom of his garment, he was signifying utter casting out by God.—Ne 5:13.

Shaking dust from feet. Shaking the dirt or the dust off of one’s feet likewise indicated disclaiming of responsibility. Jesus instructed his disciples to take this action toward a place or city that would not receive them or hear them.—Mt 10:14; Lu 10:10, 11; Ac 13:51.

Joy. Clapping hands. Joy was demonstrated by clapping the hands (2Ki 11:12; Ps 47:1) and by dancing, often accompanied by music. (Jg 11:34; 2Sa 6:14) Shouting and singing at work, particularly during the grape harvest, were expressions of happiness or of grateful joy.—Isa 16:10; Jer 48:33.

Opposition. Waving the hand (threateningly) against someone indicated opposition.—Isa 10:32; 19:16.

Lifting up one’s own head was the figurative description of an attitude having the significance of taking action, usually to oppose, fight, or oppress.—Jg 8:28; Ps 83:2.

Lifting up the hand against someone in authority indicates rebellion against him.—2Sa 18:28; 20:21.

Licking the dust is symbolic of defeat and destruction.—Ps 72:9; Isa 49:23.

Hand or foot on the back of the neck of one’s enemies is a figurative way of describing the defeat of an enemy, his being put to rout and fleeing away, being pursued and caught.—Ge 49:8; Jos 10:24; 2Sa 22:41; Ps 18:40.

Taking Authority or Action. To stand up or to rise carried with it the significance of taking authority, power, or action. Kings are spoken of as standing up when they take their kingly authority or begin to exercise it. (Da 8:22, 23; 11:2, 3, 7, 21; 12:1) Jehovah is represented as rising up to carry out judgment of the people. (Ps 76:9; 82:8) Satan is described as standing up against Israel when he incited David to take a census of them.—1Ch 21:1.

Girding up of the loins implies preparation for action. This had reference to the custom in Bible times of binding up one’s flowing garments with a belt or girdle in order not to be hampered in connection with doing work, running, and so forth.—Job 40:7; Jer 1:17; Lu 12:37; 1Pe 1:13, ftn.

Miscellaneous. Lying down at feet. When Ruth wanted to remind Boaz of his position as repurchaser, she came at night, uncovering his feet and lying down by them. When he awoke, she said to him: “I am Ruth your slave girl, and you must spread out your skirt over your slave girl, for you are a repurchaser.” Ruth hereby indicated that she was willing to undergo brother-in-law marriage.—Ru 3:6-9.

Appearance when fasting. ‘Afflicting one’s soul’ most likely referred to fasting and could represent mourning, acknowledgment of sins, repentance, or contrition. (Le 16:29, 31; 2Sa 1:12; Ps 35:13; Joe 1:13, 14) When Jesus was on earth, hypocritical persons put on a sad face, disfiguring their faces in order to make a show of “holiness” by fasting, but Jesus told his disciples that when fasting they should grease their heads and wash their faces so that they would appear normal to men, knowing that the Father looks upon the heart. (Mt 6:16-18) Fasting was sometimes practiced by Christians in order for them to give undivided attention to spiritual matters.—Ac 13:2, 3; see FAST.

Laying hand on eyes of deceased. Jehovah’s expression to Jacob, “Joseph will lay his hand upon your eyes” (Ge 46:4), was a way of saying that Joseph would close Jacob’s eyes after his death, which was ordinarily a duty of the firstborn son. So it seems that Jehovah here indicated to Jacob that the right of firstborn should go to Joseph.—1Ch 5:2.

Whistling. To “whistle at” something represented astonishment or wonderment. Such was the attitude produced in those viewing the awesome desolation of Judah, and later, the fearsome ruin of Babylon.—Jer 25:9; 50:13; 51:37.

It was the custom of kings or men of authority to lean on the arm of a servant or one in an inferior position, as did King Jehoram of Israel. (2Ki 7:2, 17) King Ben-hadad II supported himself on the hand of his servant Naaman as he bowed down at the house of his god Rimmon.—2Ki 5:18.

Illustrative Usage. Washing another’s feet. Jesus employed one of the Oriental customs in an illustrative way when, giving his disciples a lesson in humility and serving one another, he washed his disciples’ feet. Peter spoke up, asking him to wash not only his feet but also his hands and his head. But Jesus replied: “He that has bathed does not need to have more than his feet washed, but is wholly clean.” (Joh 13:3-10) Here Jesus was referring to the fact that after one had been to the bath he would, on returning from the bath to his house, need only to wash the dust of the road from his sandaled feet. He used this cleanness as figurative of spiritual cleanness.

Walking. Another illustrative expression is “to walk,” meaning to follow a certain course of action, as “Noah walked with the true God.” (Ge 6:9; 5:22) Those walking with God followed the life course outlined by God and found his favor. The Christian Greek Scriptures, using this same expression, picture the two contrasting courses of action pursued by one before and after becoming a servant of God. (Eph 2:2, 10; 4:17; 5:2) In a similar manner “running” is used to symbolize a course of action. (1Pe 4:4) God said that the prophets in Judah “ran” though not sent by him, meaning that they took the prophetic course falsely, unauthorized. (Jer 23:21) Paul describes the Christian course in terms of “running.” He likens it to a race that a person must run according to the rules in order to win the prize.—1Co 9:24; Ga 2:2; 5:7.

GEHENNA

(Ge·hen´na) [Gr. form of the Heb. Geh Hin·nom´, “Valley of Hinnom”].

This name appears 12 times in the Christian Greek Scriptures, and whereas many translators take the liberty to render it by the word “hell,” a number of modern translations transliterate the word from the Greek ge´en·na.—Mt 5:22, Ro, Mo, ED, NW, BC (Spanish), NC (Spanish), also the footnotes of Da and RS.

The deep, narrow Valley of Hinnom, later known by this Greek name, lay to the S and SW of ancient Jerusalem and is the modern-day Wadi er-Rababi (Ge Ben Hinnom). (Jos 15:8; 18:16; Jer 19:2, 6; see HINNOM, VALLEY OF.) Judean Kings Ahaz and Manasseh engaged in idolatrous worship there, which included the making of human sacrifices by fire to Baal. (2Ch 28:1, 3; 33:1, 6; Jer 7:31, 32; 32:35) Later, to prevent such activities there in the future, faithful King Josiah had the place of idolatrous worship polluted, particularly the section called Topheth.—2Ki 23:10.

No Symbol of Everlasting Torment. Jesus Christ associated fire with Gehenna (Mt 5:22; 18:9; Mr 9:47, 48), as did the disciple James, the only Biblical writer besides Matthew, Mark, and Luke to use the word. (Jas 3:6) Some commentators endeavor to link such fiery characteristic of Gehenna with the burning of human sacrifices that was carried on prior to Josiah’s reign and, on this basis, hold that Gehenna was used by Jesus as a symbol of everlasting torment. However, since Jehovah God expressed repugnance for such practice, saying that it was “a thing that I had not commanded and that had not come up into my heart” (Jer 7:31; 32:35), it seems most unlikely that God’s Son, in discussing divine judgment, would make such idolatrous practice the basis for the symbolic meaning of Gehenna. It may be noted that God prophetically decreed that the Valley of Hinnom would serve as a place for mass disposal of dead bodies rather than for the torture of live victims. (Jer 7:32, 33; 19:2, 6, 7, 10, 11) Thus, at Jeremiah 31:40 the reference to “the low plain of the carcasses and of the fatty ashes” is generally accepted as designating the Valley of Hinnom, and a gate known as “the Gate of the Ash-heaps” evidently opened out onto the eastern extremity of the valley at its juncture with the ravine of the Kidron. (Ne 3:13, 14) It seems obvious that such “carcasses” and “fatty ashes” are not related to the human sacrifices made there under Ahaz and Manasseh, since any bodies so offered would doubtless be viewed by the idolaters as “sacred” and would not be left lying in the valley.

Therefore, the Biblical evidence concerning Gehenna generally parallels the traditional view presented by rabbinic and other sources. That view is that the Valley of Hinnom was used as a place for the disposal of waste matter from the city of Jerusalem. (At Mt 5:30 Ph renders ge´en·na as “rubbish heap.”) Concerning “Gehinnom,” the Jewish commentator David Kimhi (1160-1235?), in his comment on Psalm 27:13, gives the following historical information: “And it is a place in the land adjoining Jerusalem, and it is a loathsome place, and they throw there unclean things and carcasses. Also there was a continual fire there to burn the unclean things and the bones of the carcasses. Hence, the judgment of the wicked ones is called parabolically Gehinnom.”

Symbolic of Complete Destruction. It is evident that Jesus used Gehenna as representative of utter destruction resulting from adverse judgment by God, hence with no resurrection to life as a soul being possible. (Mt 10:28; Lu 12:4, 5) The scribes and Pharisees as a wicked class were denounced as ‘subjects for Gehenna.’ (Mt 23:13-15, 33) To avoid such destruction, Jesus’ followers were to get rid of anything causing spiritual stumbling, the ‘cutting off of a hand or foot’ and the ‘tearing out of an eye’ figuratively representing their deadening of these body members with reference to sin.—Mt 18:9; Mr 9:43-47; Col 3:5; compare Mt 5:27-30.

Jesus also apparently alluded to Isaiah 66:24 in describing Gehenna as a place “where their maggot does not die and the fire is not put out.” (Mr 9:47, 48) That the symbolic picture here is not one of torture but, rather, of complete destruction is evident from the fact that the Isaiah text dealt, not with persons who were alive, but with “the carcasses of the men that were transgressing” against God. If, as the available evidence indicates, the Valley of Hinnom was a place for the disposal of garbage and carcasses, fire, perhaps increased in intensity by the addition of sulfur (compare Isa 30:33), would be the only suitable means to eliminate such refuse. Where the fire did not reach, worms, or maggots, would breed, consuming anything not destroyed by the fire. On this basis, Jesus’ words would mean that the destructive effect of God’s adverse judgment would not cease until complete destruction was attained.

Figurative Use. The disciple James’ use of the word “Gehenna” shows that an unruly tongue is itself a world of unrighteousness and that one’s whole round of living can be affected by fiery words that defile the speaker’s body. The tongue of such a one, “full of death-dealing poison” and so giving evidence of a bad heart condition, can cause the user to be sentenced by God to go to the symbolic Gehenna.—Jas 3:6, 8; compare Mt 12:37; Ps 5:9; 140:3; Ro 3:13.

The Biblical use of Gehenna as a symbol corresponds to that of “the lake of fire” in the book of Revelation.—Re 20:14, 15; see LAKE OF FIRE.

MOURNING

Mourning among Oriental peoples was customarily accompanied by much outward display of grief, and this is reflected in the Biblical accounts of periods of mourning. One entire book of the Bible, Lamentations, is an expression of mourning over the fate of Jerusalem.

Causes of Mourning. Persons mourned to express repentance (Ne 9:1, 2; Jon 3:5-9), or because of the imminence of calamity (Es 4:3; Jer 6:26; Am 5:16, 17) or a disastrous condition already prevailing (Joe 1:5-14). The most common cause of mourning, undoubtedly, was death. The death of a member of the immediate family set in motion a period of mourning (Ge 23:2; 27:41; 37:33-35), while the death of a parent or of an only son are set out as occasions of the deepest grief. (Ps 35:14; Am 8:10; Zec 12:10) The death of a national leader occasioned periods of mourning lasting from 7 to 30 days. (Nu 20:29; De 34:8; 1Sa 31:8, 12, 13) The Egyptians continued to shed tears over the death of Joseph’s father Jacob for 70 days, with an additional 7-day period of mourning rites in Canaan.—Ge 50:3-11.

Ways of Expressing Sorrow. Mourning was given expression vocally and by weeping, as well as by disfigurement of the physical appearance and by fasting or otherwise abstaining from normal practices. Wailing or loud and bitter crying might accompany the weeping (2Sa 1:11, 12; Es 4:1), the chest was beaten (Isa 32:11, 12; Na 2:7; Lu 8:52), garments were often ripped apart (Jg 11:35; 2Ki 22:11, 19), dust or ashes might be cast on the head and sackcloth be worn (2Sa 13:19; 2Ki 6:30; Job 2:11, 12), sandals might be removed and the head or face be covered (2Sa 15:30; 19:4), the hair might be pulled out or cut off and the beard shaved (Job 1:20; Ezr 9:3; Jer 41:5), while some persons, following pagan practices, made cuts in their body (Jer 16:6; 47:5). In addition to fasting, the person might abstain from rubbing himself with oil or washing his garments (2Sa 14:2; 19:24; Da 10:2, 3), sometimes sitting on the ground or amid ashes.—2Sa 13:31; Job 2:8; Isa 3:26.

Plaintive elegies at times were composed as songs of mourning. (2Sa 1:17-27; 3:33, 34; 2Ch 35:25) A particular type of song was the shig·ga·yohn´, a Hebrew term that occurs in the superscription of Psalm 7; a related term appears in Habakkuk 3:1. This was a dirgelike composition and apparently indicates a highly emotional song with rapid changes of rhythm. It will be noted in both of these references (Ps 7; Hab 3:2-19) that the elements of danger, strong outbursts of appeal or emotion, and subsequent rejoicing in Jehovah are present.

Occasionally, professional mourners were employed at funerals, and musicians played mournful tunes (Jer 9:17, 18; Mt 9:23); these were imitated by little children playing in the marketplaces in the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry. (Mt 11:16, 17) The pipe or flute was the preferred instrument for lamentation.—Jer 48:36; Mt 9:23; see Josephus’ Jewish War, III, 437 (ix, 5).

After a burial the women customarily visited the grave, to weep and mourn. (Joh 11:31) A funeral meal seems to have been served sometime during the mourning period and, in some instances, appears to have been made into a special feast.—Ho 9:4; Jer 16:5, 7.

Prohibitions Involving Mourning. On occasion God’s people as a body, or as individuals, were instructed not to mourn over the death of certain ones, such as condemned wrongdoers. (Le 10:1, 2, 6) The prophet Ezekiel was commanded to adopt none of the signs of mourning for his deceased wife, thereby serving as a portent for the Israelites with him in Babylon that they would be so stunned that they would not mourn the divine execution of judgment on Jerusalem for its unfaithfulness. (Eze 24:15-24) Jeremiah received somewhat similar instructions.—Jer 16:5-13.

Certain mourning practices were forbidden under the Mosaic Law, including the inflicting of cuts in the flesh or causing of “baldness on your foreheads” (Le 19:28; De 14:1) and the misuse of tithes in connection with the dead. (De 26:12-14) For certain members of their immediate families the priests could mourn openly, but the high priest was restricted from doing so.—Le 21:1-6, 10-12.

A Time to Mourn. Ecclesiastes 3:1, 4 states that there is “a time to weep and a time to laugh; a time to wail and a time to skip about.” In view of all mankind’s dying condition, the heart of the wise ones is shown to be “in the house of mourning” rather than in the banquet house. (Ec 7:2, 4; compare Pr 14:13.) Thus, the wise person makes use of his opportunity to express sympathy and give comfort, instead of ignoring such an occasion in favor of seeking pleasure. This helps him to keep in mind his own mortal state and to keep his heart in a right attitude toward his Creator.

Valid motives for mourning are set forth in the Scriptures. In addition to the death of loved ones (Ge 42:38; 44:31), detestable and God-dishonoring practices of false religion are a cause for sighing and groaning (Eze 9:4; compare 1Co 5:2), and grief is rightly expressed because of one’s own errors. (Ps 38:4, 6-10) Jehovah urges those who have drawn away from him: “Come back to me with all your hearts, and with fasting and with weeping and with wailing. And rip apart your hearts, and not your garments.” (Joe 2:12, 13; compare Jas 4:8, 9.) Elsewhere, also, stress is laid, not on the external expressions of grief or mourning, but on the inner stirrings and pain of heart, marking genuine sadness.—Ps 31:9, 10; Pr 14:10; 15:13; Mr 14:72; Joh 16:6.

Even Jehovah speaks of himself as being “hurt at his heart.” (Ge 6:6; compare Isa 63:9.) God’s holy spirit can also be ‘grieved.’ (Eph 4:30) Since that spirit works in God’s servants toward the producing of fruits of righteousness (Ga 5:22-24), those who fail to appreciate this divine provision, who resist its working, and who go contrary to its leading are, in effect, “grieving” it.—Compare Isa 63:10; 1Th 5:19.

A Balanced View of Mourning. In the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry, mourning was still frequently carried on by the people with much outward expression and accompanying noise and confusion. (Mr 5:38, 39) Though Jesus ‘groaned within himself’ and wept on a number of occasions (Joh 11:33-35, 38; Lu 19:41; Mr 14:33, 34; Heb 5:7), there is no record of his employing the other more ostentatious expressions already described. (Compare Lu 23:27, 28.) His disciples likewise expressed grief and mourning. (Mt 9:15; Joh 16:20-22; Ac 8:2; 9:39; 20:37, 38; Php 2:27) Paul expressed “great grief and unceasing pain in [his] heart” over his unbelieving relatives according to the flesh. (Ro 9:2, 3) He feared that he might have to mourn over those in the congregation at Corinth who had sinned and had still not repented (2Co 12:21), and he mentioned “with weeping” those who had turned aside to walk “as the enemies of the torture stake of the Christ.” (Php 3:17-19) His deep and heartfelt concern for the Christian congregation (2Co 2:1-4) qualified him to instruct others on the need for empathy and sympathy, ‘weeping with people who weep.’—Ro 12:15.

However, in view of the weakening effect of mourning and grief (Ps 6:6, 7; Lu 22:45; Ac 21:13; 2Co 2:6, 7), Christian sorrow is shown always to be tempered, balanced, and even overshadowed by hope and strength-giving joy. (Mt 5:4; 1Co 7:29, 30; 2Co 6:10; compare Ne 8:9-12.) Even in his day King David manifested a balanced, sensible, and principled viewpoint as to mourning, so that while the child conceived through his adulterous relationship with Bath-sheba was ill, David fasted and lay on the earth, seeking the true God in the child’s behalf. But upon learning of the child’s death, David got up, washed, rubbed himself with oil, changed clothes, prayed to Jehovah, and then requested food and began to eat. In explaining his acts to his surprised attendants, he stated: “Now that he has died, why is it I am fasting? Am I able to bring him back again? I am going to him, but, as for him, he will not return to me.” (2Sa 12:16, 19-23) Later, however, he needed help from straight-speaking Joab to pull out of his state of deep grief over the death of his son Absalom.—2Sa 18:33; 19:1-8.

Though “all creation keeps on groaning,” the sufferings of the Christian are minor compared with the glorious hope ahead (Ro 8:18-22; 1Pe 1:3-7), and the promise of the resurrection enables him not to “sorrow just as the rest also do who have no hope.”—1Th 4:13, 14.

Mourning and fasting without obedience to Jehovah’s word are of no benefit. (Zec 7:2-7) However, “sadness in a godly way makes for repentance to salvation.” Such sadness is the result of a person’s seeing a wrongdoing as a sin against God. It moves him to seek God’s forgiveness and to turn around from his wrong course. “But the sadness of the world produces death.” Although a person may be sad that his wrong was exposed and that this has meant loss to him, he has no desire to gain God’s forgiveness. (2Co 7:10, 11) For example, Esau’s tears shed selfishly in hope of regaining his forfeited birthright had no effect on Isaac or on God.—Heb 12:16, 17.

Figurative and Prophetic Use. Figuratively, even the land is represented as mourning because of devastations caused by invading armies or by a plague. (Jer 4:27, 28; Joe 1:10-12; contrast Ps 96:11-13.) In its desolation, the land would grow up in weeds and develop a neglected, uncared-for appearance, like that of a person who has not attended to his face, hair, or clothing while in mourning. Similarly, land devastated by a plague upon the crops presents a mournful sight.

“The sign of the Son of man” and Christ’s revelation are to cause all the tribes of the earth to “beat themselves in lamentation,” or “in grief.” (Mt 24:30; Re 1:7) Upon symbolic “Babylon the Great” plagues—death, mourning, and famine—are foretold to come “in one day,” causing those who have benefited from her to weep and mourn. (Re 18:2, 7-11, 17-19) By contrast, the New Jerusalem brings in conditions upon earth in which tears, death, mourning, outcry, and pain pass away for all time.—Re 21:2-4.

HAND

The terminal part of the arm. The “hand,” as used in the Scriptures, at times includes the wrist, as at Genesis 24:22, 30, 47 and Ezekiel 16:11, where bracelets are said to be worn on the “hands,” and at Judges 15:14, where mention is made of the fetters on Samson’s “hands.” The hand applies the power of the arm and directs it, so, in many cases where it appears in figurative speech, the idea of “applied power” can be associated with the word “hand.” (Ex 7:4; 13:3; De 2:15; Lu 1:66) Since the human hand is very dexterous and versatile and a part of the body with which work is done, it is used symbolically in many Bible texts to denote a wide range of actions.

The common Hebrew term for “hand” is yadh; at times, the word kaph is rendered “hand,” but it literally means “palm.” (Job 22:30, ftn) The usual Greek term for “hand” is kheir.

Manual Gestures and Their Significance. The hands were employed in gestures to express various things. They were lifted in prayer, the palms usually turned toward heaven in appeal (2Ch 6:12; Ne 8:6); lifted in oaths (Ge 14:22); touched to the mouth in a form of salute (Job 31:27); clapped in joy, as in applause (2Ki 11:12) or in anger or derision (Nu 24:10; Job 27:23; Na 3:19); waved in threat (Isa 10:32); placed on top of the head or on the loins in sadness or distress (2Sa 13:19; Jer 30:5, 6); washed with water in an attempt to denote ceremonial cleanness, innocence, or ridding oneself of responsibility.—Mt 15:1, 2; 27:24; contrast Ps 26:5, 6; 51:1, 2; see ATTITUDES AND GESTURES.

Figurative and Symbolic Usages. The hand was sometimes used to represent the person himself, as in David’s appeal to Nabal for food: “Just give, please, whatever your hand may find.” (1Sa 25:8) It also referred to one’s general disposition or activity (Ge 16:12), or it denoted his responsibility to account for his actions.—Ge 9:5; Eze 3:18, 20.

The hands of the priests were filled with sacrifices by Moses at the time of their installation as part of the ceremony symbolically equipping them, ‘filling their hands’ with authority and power for the priesthood.—Le 8:25-27; see FILL HAND WITH POWER.

Jehovah assured Jacob that his son Joseph would “lay his hand upon your eyes,” that is, close Jacob’s eyes after he had died. (Ge 46:4) This privilege would ordinarily have been that of the firstborn. Hence these words not only assured Jacob that his beloved son Joseph would remain near him during the remaining years of the aged patriarch’s life but also apparently foretold that the right of firstborn, lost by Reuben, would go to Joseph.

God is symbolically spoken of as using his “hand,” that is, his applied power, in accomplishing work; a few of such instances are: creation (Ps 8:6; 102:25); destroying his enemies (Isa 25:10, 11); delivering his people (Ex 7:4, 5); exercising favor and power toward those seeking him (Ezr 8:22); making provision (Ps 104:28; 145:16); and offering help (Isa 11:11). Elihu declared that the powerful ones depart “by no hand,” and the stone of Nebuchadnezzar’s prophetic dream was cut out of a mountain “not by hands”; in each case the meaning was that the action occurred, not by human hands, but by the power of Jehovah.—Job 34:1, 20; Da 2:34, 44, 45.

‘In, into, or under one’s hand’ means to be under such one’s power or dominion (Ge 9:2; 41:35; Job 2:6; 1Pe 5:6; compare Ge 37:21), or it may mean “at your disposal” or ‘in one’s care’ (Ge 16:6, compare Le; Ge 42:37, compare RS; Lu 23:46; Joh 10:28, 29). “With uplifted hand” denotes being vigorous, victorious (Ex 14:8); ‘strengthening the hands’ means empowering or supplying and equipping (Ezr 1:6); “weakening the hands,” breaking down the morale (Jer 38:4); ‘putting one’s own life into his hand or palm,’ risking his life (1Sa 19:5; Job 13:14). “Shaking hands” was done in making a promise (Ezr 10:19) or in going surety for another (Pr 6:1-3; 17:18; 22:26); ‘putting the hand to’ signifies undertaking (De 15:10, compare KJ); ‘putting one’s hand upon another’s goods,’ stealing or improperly using such (Ex 22:7, 8, 10, 11); ‘clean hands’ denote innocence (2Sa 22:21; compare Ps 24:3, 4); ‘blood filling the hands,’ murder (Isa 1:15; 59:3, 7); ‘putting the hand over the mouth,’ keeping quiet (Jg 18:19); ‘dropping the hands down,’ becoming discouraged (2Ch 15:7; see also Isa 35:3; Heb 12:12, 13); and ‘opening up the hand,’ being generous (De 15:11).

“A little more folding of the hands in lying down” brings poverty to the lazy one. (Pr 6:9-11) He is described as being too weary to get his hand out of the banquet bowl to bring it back to his mouth. (Pr 26:15) The negligent person “working with a slack hand will be of little means,” whereas the diligent hand will bring riches.—Pr 10:4.

Other Hebrew idiomatic expressions involving the hand are: ‘put your hand with,’ meaning to cooperate with, be on the side of (Ex 23:1; 1Sa 22:17); “by the hand of” denotes under the guidance of (Ex 38:21) or by means of (Ex 4:13; Le 8:36; 10:11); ‘his hand does not reach,’ or ‘his hand is not attaining it,’ he does not have enough (financial) means (Le 14:21); ‘what his hand shall get,’ what he can afford (Nu 6:21); ‘hands of a sword,’ power of a sword (Job 5:20); ‘hand of the tongue,’ power of the tongue (Pr 18:21); ‘life of your hand,’ revival of your power (Isa 57:10); ‘to shut the hand’ from one’s brother, that is, to be closefisted as to helping him.—De 15:7, KJ.

Jehovah told the Israelites that they should tie his words “as a sign upon [their] hand” (De 6:6-8; 11:18) and that he had engraved Zion upon his palms (Isa 49:14-16), denoting constant remembrance and attention. With similar meaning, Jehovah tells the eunuchs who lay hold of his covenant that he will give them in his house “a monument” (or, place; literally, a “hand”). (Isa 56:4, 5) The Bible speaks of worshipers of God as writing upon their hands, symbolically, the words, “Belonging to Jehovah,” thus denoting they are his slaves. (Isa 44:5) In the same way the “mark” of “the wild beast” in the right hand would symbolize one’s giving attention, devotion, and active support to “the wild beast” and its “image,” inasmuch as a person’s hands are used to do work in behalf of the one he serves.—Re 13:16, 17; 14:9, 10; 20:4.

Laying On of Hands. Aside from mere handling, hands were laid on a person or object for various purposes. The general meaning of the act, however, was that of a designation, a pointing out of the person or thing as being acknowledged, or recognized, in a certain way. During the ceremony at the installation of the priesthood, Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the head of the bull and the two rams to be sacrificed, thereby acknowledging that these animals were being sacrificed for them for the sake of their becoming priests of Jehovah God. (Ex 29:10, 15, 19; Le 8:14, 18, 22) When appointing Joshua as his successor at God’s command, Moses laid his hand on Joshua, who consequently was “full of the spirit of wisdom” and so was able to lead Israel properly. (De 34:9) Hands were laid on persons when designating them as receivers of a blessing. (Ge 48:14; Mr 10:16) Jesus Christ touched, or laid his hands on, some persons he healed. (Mt 8:3; Mr 6:5; Lu 13:13) The gift of the holy spirit was granted in some instances through the laying on of the hands of the apostles.—Ac 8:14-20; 19:6.

Appointments to service. In the Christian congregation appointments of mature men to positions or offices of responsibility were also made by the laying on of hands by those authorized to do so. (Ac 6:6; 1Ti 4:14) Because of the influence such appointed men would have and the example they would set, the apostle Paul admonished Timothy: “Never lay your hands hastily upon any man; neither be a sharer in the sins of others.” This meant not to appoint a man without due consideration of his qualifications, lest the man fail to carry out the duties of his office properly, and Timothy thus share the blame for the difficulty caused.—1Ti 5:22.

The Right Hand. The right hand was considered to be of great importance, symbolically. Joseph was displeased when Jacob crossed his hands in order to lay his right hand on Ephraim, Joseph’s younger son. But Jacob did this purposely, to give Ephraim the superior blessing. (Ge 48:13-20) To be on the right hand of a ruler was to have the most important position, next to the ruler himself (Ps 110:1; Ac 7:55, 56; Ro 8:34; 1Pe 3:22), or a position in his favor. (Mt 25:33) Jesus is spoken of in the vision of Revelation as having the seven stars of the seven congregations in his right hand. That is, all these bodies of elders have his favor and are under his full control, power, and direction.—Re 1:16, 20; 2:1.

For God to take hold of one’s right hand would strengthen that one. (Ps 73:23) Usually the right hand of a warrior was his sword-wielding hand, and it was unprotected by the shield in the left hand. Therefore, a friend would stand or fight at his right hand as an upholder and protector. This circumstance is used metaphorically with regard to God’s help and protection to those serving him.—Ps 16:8; 109:30, 31; 110:5; 121:5.

The writer of Ecclesiastes says: “The heart of the wise is at his right hand, but the heart of the stupid at his left hand.” In other words, the wise one inclines toward a good, favorable path, but the stupid one inclines toward a bad course.—Ec 10:2.

Directions. The Hebrew expressions for “right hand” (Heb., ya·min´) and “left hand” (Heb., semo´l´) are also translated “south” and “north,” respectively (Ge 14:15; Ps 89:12), since directions were reckoned from the standpoint of a person facing the E. Hence, S would be to his right.—1Sa 23:19, 24.

Other Uses. “Hand” (Heb., yadh) is also used for “side” (Ex 2:5; Ec 4:1), or ‘at the side of’ (Ne 3:4, 5, 7); for “coast” (Nu 24:24); and for the “tenons” of the tabernacle panel frames (Ex 26:17; compare KJ, margin). The Hebrew word kaph (often rendered “palm” and “hand”) is used for the “sole” of the foot (Ge 8:9), for cups (“spoons,” KJ) of the tabernacle and of the temple (Ex 25:29; Nu 7:84, 86; 2Ki 25:14), and for “socket” (of one’s thigh) or “hollow” (of a sling). (Ge 32:25, 32; 1Sa 25:29) Both yadh (hand) and kaph (palm; hand) are variously translated by yet other English terms.

“Handfuls,” figuratively, stands for abundance (Ge 41:47), or “a handful” may mean only a little (1Ki 17:12) or a modest portion (Ec 4:6), according to the context.—See ARM; THUMB; WASHING OF HANDS.

MOSES

(Mo´ses) [Drawn Out [that is, saved out of water]].

“Man of the true God,” leader of the nation of Israel, mediator of the Law covenant, prophet, judge, commander, historian, and writer. (Ezr 3:2) Moses was born in 1593 B.C.E., in Egypt, being the son of Amram, the grandson of Kohath, and the great-grandson of Levi. His mother Jochebed was Kohath’s sister. Moses was three years younger than his brother Aaron. Miriam their sister was some years older.—Ex 6:16, 18, 20; 2:7.

Early Life in Egypt. Moses, a “divinely beautiful” child, was spared from Pharaoh’s genocidal decree commanding the destruction of every newborn Hebrew male. He was hidden by his mother for three months, then placed in a papyrus ark among the reeds by the bank of the Nile River, where Pharaoh’s daughter found him. Through the wise action of his mother and sister, Moses came to be nursed and trained by his mother in the employment of the daughter of Pharaoh, who then adopted him as her son. As a member of Pharaoh’s household, he was “instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” becoming “powerful in his words and deeds,” undoubtedly powerful in both mental and physical capabilities.—Ex 2:1-10; Ac 7:20-22.

In spite of his favored position and the opportunities offered to him in Egypt, Moses’ heart was with God’s enslaved people. In fact, he hoped to be used by God to bring deliverance to them. In the 40th year of his life, while making observation of the burdens his Hebrew brothers were bearing, he saw an Egyptian striking a Hebrew. In taking up his fellow Israelite’s defense, he killed the Egyptian and buried him in the sand. It was at this point that Moses had made the most important decision of his life: “By faith Moses, when grown up, refused to be called the son of the daughter of Pharaoh, choosing to be ill-treated with the people of God rather than to have the temporary enjoyment of sin.” Moses thereby gave up the honor and materialism that he might have enjoyed as a member of the household of mighty Pharaoh.—Heb 11:24, 25.

Actually, Moses felt that the time had come that he would be able to give the Hebrews salvation. But they did not appreciate his efforts, and Moses was forced to flee from Egypt when Pharaoh heard of the slaying of the Egyptian.—Ex 2:11-15; Ac 7:23-29.

Forty Years in Midian. It was a long journey across wilderness territory to Midian, where Moses sought refuge. There, at a well, Moses’ courage and readiness to act forcefully to help those suffering injustice again came to the fore. When shepherds drove away the seven daughters of Jethro and their flock, Moses delivered the women and watered the flocks for them. As a result he was invited to Jethro’s house, where he entered Jethro’s employment as a shepherd for his flocks and eventually married one of Jethro’s daughters, Zipporah, who bore him two sons, Gershom and Eliezer.—Ex 2:16-22; 18:2-4.

Training for future service. While it was God’s purpose to deliver the Hebrews by the hand of Moses, God’s due time had not yet arrived; neither was Moses yet qualified to serve over God’s people. He had to undergo another 40 years of training. The qualities of patience, meekness, humility, long-suffering, mildness of temper, self-control, and learning to wait on Jehovah needed to be developed in him to a higher degree, in order for him to be the fitting one to lead God’s people. He had to be groomed and prepared to endure the discouragements, disappointments, and hardships he would encounter, and to handle with loving-kindness, calmness, and strength the multitude of problems a great nation would present. He possessed much learning, and his training as a member of Pharaoh’s household had doubtless given him dignity, confidence, and poise and had accentuated his ability to organize and command. But the lowly occupation of shepherding in Midian provided the training needed to develop fine qualities that would be even more important for the task ahead of him. Similarly, David underwent rigorous training, even after being anointed by Samuel, and Jesus Christ was tried, tested, and proved, to be perfected as King and High Priest forever. “He [Christ] learned obedience from the things he suffered; and after he had been made perfect he became responsible for everlasting salvation to all those obeying him.”—Heb 5:8, 9.

His Appointment as Deliverer. Toward the end of his 40-year sojourn in Midian, Moses was shepherding Jethro’s flock near Mount Horeb when he was amazed to see a thornbush flaming with fire but not consumed. As he approached to inspect this great phenomenon, Jehovah’s angel spoke out of the flame, revealing that it was now time for God to deliver Israel out of bondage and commissioning Moses to go in His memorial name Jehovah. (Ex 3:1-15) Thus God appointed Moses as His prophet and representative, and Moses could now correctly be called an anointed one, or messiah, or “the Christ” as at Hebrews 11:26. Jehovah, through the angel, provided credentials that Moses could present to the older men of Israel. These were in the form of three miracles as signs. Here, for the first time in the Scriptures, we read of a human empowered to perform miracles.—Ex 4:1-9.

Moses not disqualified because of diffidence. But Moses showed diffidence, arguing that he was unable to speak fluently. Here was a changed Moses, quite different from the one who had, of his own accord, offered himself as Israel’s deliverer 40 years earlier. He continued to remonstrate with Jehovah, finally asking Jehovah to excuse him from the task. Although this aroused God’s anger, he did not reject Moses but provided Moses’ brother Aaron as a mouthpiece. Thus, as Moses was representative for God, so Moses became as “God” to Aaron, who spoke representatively for him. In the ensuing meeting with the older men of Israel and the encounters with Pharaoh, it appears that God gave Moses the instructions and commands and Moses, in turn, relayed them to Aaron, so that Aaron did the actual speaking before Pharaoh (a successor of the Pharaoh from whom Moses had fled 40 years previously). (Ex 2:23; 4:10-17) Later, Jehovah spoke of Aaron as Moses’ “prophet,” meaning that, as Moses was God’s prophet, directed by him, so Aaron should be directed by Moses. Also, Moses was told that he was being made “God to Pharaoh,” that is, given divine power and authority over Pharaoh, so that there was now no need to be afraid of the king of Egypt.—Ex 7:1, 2.

Though reproving him, God did not cancel Moses’ assignment because of his reluctance to take up the tremendous task as deliverer of Israel. Moses had not demurred because of old age, even though he was 80. Forty years later, at the age of 120 years, Moses still had full vigor and alertness. (De 34:7) During his 40 years in Midian, Moses had had much time to meditate, and he had come to see the mistake he had made in trying to deliver the Hebrews on his own initiative. He now realized his own inadequacy. And after this long time, detached from all public affairs, it was doubtless quite a shock to be suddenly offered this role.

Later the Bible tells us: “The man Moses was by far the meekest of all the men who were upon the surface of the ground.” (Nu 12:3) As a meek person, he recognized that he was a mere human, with imperfections and weaknesses. He did not push himself forward as Israel’s invincible leader. He expressed, not fear of Pharaoh, but an acute awareness of his own limitations.

Before Pharaoh of Egypt. Moses and Aaron were now key figures in a ‘battle of the gods.’ In the persons of the magic-practicing priests, the chiefs of whom were apparently named Jannes and Jambres (2Ti 3:8), Pharaoh summoned the power of all the gods of Egypt against the power of Jehovah. The first miracle that Aaron performed before Pharaoh at Moses’ direction proved Jehovah’s supremacy over the gods of Egypt, even though Pharaoh became more obstinate. (Ex 7:8-13) Later, when the third plague occurred, even the priests were forced to admit, “It is the finger of God!” And they were so severely stricken by the plague of boils that they were altogether unable even to appear before Pharaoh to oppose Moses during that plague.—Ex 8:16-19; 9:10-12.

Plagues do softening and hardening work. Moses and Aaron became the announcers of each of the Ten Plagues. The plagues came as announced, proving Moses’ commission as Jehovah’s representative. Jehovah’s name was declared and much talked about in Egypt, accomplishing both a softening and a hardening toward that name—softening the Israelites and some of the Egyptians; hardening Pharaoh and his advisers and supporters. (Ex 9:16; 11:10; 12:29-39) Instead of believing that they had offended their gods, the Egyptians knew that it was Jehovah who was judging their gods. By the time nine plagues had been executed, Moses too had become “very great in the land of Egypt, in the eyes of Pharaoh’s servants and in the eyes of the people.”—Ex 11:3.

There was a marked change in the men of Israel also. They had at first accepted Moses’ credentials, but after experiencing harder working conditions at the order of Pharaoh, they complained against him to the point that Moses in discouragement appealed to Jehovah. (Ex 4:29-31; 5:19-23) The Most High at that time strengthened him by revealing that He was now going to fulfill that for which Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob had looked, namely, the full revealing of the meaning of his name Jehovah in delivering Israel and establishing it as a great nation in the land of promise. (Ex 6:1-8) Even then the men of Israel did not listen to Moses. But now, after the ninth plague, they were solidly behind him, cooperating so that, after the tenth plague, he could organize them and lead them out in an orderly way, “in battle formation.”—Ex 13:18.

Courage and faith required to face Pharaoh. It was only in the strength of Jehovah and due to the operation of his spirit upon them that Moses and Aaron proved equal to the task set before them. Picture the court of Pharaoh, the king of the undisputed world power of that time. Here was unparalleled splendor, the haughty Pharaoh, supposed to be a god himself, surrounded by his advisers, military commanders, guards, and slaves. Moreover, there were the religious leaders, the magic-practicing priests, chief among Moses’ opposers. These men were, aside from Pharaoh himself, the most powerful men in the realm. All this impressive array was aligned to back up Pharaoh in support of the gods of Egypt. And Moses and Aaron came before Pharaoh, not once, but many times, Pharaoh’s heart getting harder each time, because he was determined to keep his valuable Hebrew slaves under his domination. In fact, after announcing the eighth plague, Moses and Aaron were driven out from before Pharaoh, and after the ninth plague they were ordered not to try to see Pharaoh’s face again on pain of death.—Ex 10:11, 28.

With these things in mind, it becomes most understandable that Moses repeatedly appealed to Jehovah for assurance and strength. But it must be noted that he never failed to carry out to the letter what Jehovah commanded. He never diminished one word of that which Jehovah gave him to tell Pharaoh, and Moses’ leadership was such that, at the time of the tenth plague, “all the sons of Israel did just as Jehovah had commanded Moses and Aaron. They did just so.” (Ex 12:50) Moses is held before Christians as an example of outstanding faith. The apostle Paul says of him: “By faith he left Egypt, but not fearing the anger of the king, for he continued steadfast as seeing the One who is invisible.”—Heb 11:27.

Before the tenth plague, Moses was privileged to institute the Passover. (Ex 12:1-16) At the Red Sea, Moses had to face further complaints of the people, who appeared trapped and about to be slaughtered. But he expressed the faith of a true leader under Jehovah’s mighty hand, assuring Israel that Jehovah would destroy the pursuing Egyptian army. In this crisis he apparently called out to Jehovah, for God said to him: “Why do you keep crying out to me?” Then God commanded Moses to lift up his rod and stretch his hand out over the sea and split it apart. (Ex 14:10-18) Centuries later the apostle Paul said, of Israel’s subsequent crossing of the Red Sea: “Our forefathers were all under the cloud and all passed through the sea and all got baptized into Moses by means of the cloud and of the sea.” (1Co 10:1, 2) Jehovah did the baptizing. To be delivered from their murderous pursuers, the Jewish forefathers had to unite themselves with Moses as head and follow his leadership as he led them through the sea. The entire congregation of Israel was thus, in effect, immersed into the liberator and leader Moses.

Mediator of the Law Covenant. In the third month after the Exodus from Egypt, Jehovah demonstrated before all Israel the greatness of the authority and responsibility that he placed upon his servant Moses as well as the intimacy of Moses’ position with God. Before all Israel, gathered at the foot of Mount Horeb, Jehovah called Moses into the mountain and, by means of an angel, spoke with him. On one occasion Moses was privileged to have what was probably the most awe-inspiring experience of any man prior to the coming of Jesus Christ. High in the mountain, alone, Jehovah gave him a vision of his glory, putting his “palm” over Moses as a screen, allowing Moses to see his “back,” evidently the afterglow of this divine manifestation of glory. Then he spoke to Moses personally, as it were.—Ex 19:1-3; 33:18-23; 34:4-6.

Jehovah told Moses: “You are not able to see my face, because no man may see me and yet live.” (Ex 33:20) And centuries later, the apostle John wrote: “No man has seen God at any time.” (Joh 1:18) The Christian martyr Stephen told the Jews: “This [Moses] is he that came to be among the congregation in the wilderness with the angel that spoke to him on Mount Sinai.” (Ac 7:38) So Jehovah was represented on the mountain by an angel. Nevertheless, such was the glory of Jehovah as manifested by Jehovah’s angelic representative that the skin of Moses’ face emitted rays so that the sons of Israel could not bear to look at him.—Ex 34:29-35; 2Co 3:7, 13.

God constituted Moses mediator of the Law covenant with Israel, an intimate position such as no man has ever held before God except Jesus Christ, the Mediator of the new covenant. With the blood of animal sacrifices Moses sprinkled the book of the covenant, representing Jehovah as one “party,” and the people (no doubt the representative older men) as the other “party.” He read the book of the covenant to the people, who replied, “All that Jehovah has spoken we are willing to do and be obedient.” (Ex 24:3-8; Heb 9:19) In his office of mediator, Moses was privileged to oversee the building of the tabernacle and the making of its utensils, the pattern of which God gave to him, and to install the priesthood in office, anointing the tabernacle and Aaron the high priest with the oil of special composition. Then he took oversight of the first official services of the newly consecrated priesthood.—Ex chaps 25-29; Le chaps 8, 9.

A fitting mediator. Moses went up Mount Horeb several times, remaining on two occasions for periods of 40 days and nights. (Ex 24:18; 34:28) After the first of these occasions he returned with two stone tablets “written on by God’s finger,” containing “the Ten Words” or Ten Commandments, the basic laws of the Law covenant. (Ex 31:18; De 4:13) On this first occasion Moses showed himself to be fittingly qualified as mediator between Jehovah and Israel and leader of this great nation of perhaps three million or more. When Moses was in the mountain, Jehovah informed him that the people had turned to idolatry and Jehovah said: “Now let me be, that my anger may blaze against them and I may exterminate them, and let me make you into a great nation.” Moses’ immediate reply revealed that the sanctification of Jehovah’s name was the thing of primary importance to him—that he was completely unselfish and did not desire fame for himself. He asked nothing for himself but, rather, showed concern for Jehovah’s name that He had recently exalted by the Red Sea miracle, and regard for God’s promise to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Jehovah, in approval of Moses’ plea, spared the people. Here it is seen that Jehovah regarded Moses as satisfactorily filling his mediatorial role and that He respected the arrangement through which he had appointed Moses to that office. Thus, Jehovah “began to feel regret over the evil that he had spoken of doing to his people”—that is, because of altered circumstances, he changed his attitude regarding bringing evil upon them.—Ex 32:7-14.

Moses’ zeal for true worship as he served in behalf of God was displayed when he got down from the mountain. Seeing the idolatrous revelers, he threw the tablets down, breaking them, and called for those who would take Jehovah’s side. The tribe of Levi joined Moses, and he commanded them to put to death those engaging in the false worship. This resulted in the slaying of about 3,000 men. Then he returned to Jehovah, acknowledging the people’s great sin, and pleaded: “But now if you will pardon their sin,—and if not, wipe me out, please, from your book that you have written.” God was not displeased at Moses’ mediatorial plea, but answered: “Whoever has sinned against me, I shall wipe him out of my book.”—Ex 32:19-33.

Many were the times that Moses represented Jehovah’s side of the covenant, commanding true, clean worship and executing judgment on disobedient ones. More than once he also stood between the nation, or individuals thereof, and their destruction at Jehovah’s hand.—Nu 12; 14:11-21; 16:20-22, 43-50; 21:7; De 9:18-20.

Unselfishness, Humility, Meekness. Moses’ chief interests were in Jehovah’s name and His people. Consequently he was not one to seek glory or position. When Jehovah’s spirit came upon certain men in the camp and they began to act as prophets, Moses’ assistant Joshua wanted to restrain them, evidently because he felt that they were detracting from Moses’ glory and authority. But Moses replied: “Are you feeling jealous for me? No, I wish that all of Jehovah’s people were prophets, because Jehovah would put his spirit upon them!”—Nu 11:24-29.

Although he was Jehovah’s appointed leader of the great nation of Israel, Moses was willing to accept counsel from others, particularly when it would be of value to the nation. Shortly after the Israelites left Egypt, Jethro visited Moses, bringing with him Moses’ wife and sons. Jethro observed how hard Moses was working, wearing himself out handling the problems of everyone who came to him. He wisely suggested an orderly arrangement wherein Moses would delegate degrees of responsibility to others, to lighten his load. Moses listened to Jethro’s advice, accepted it, and organized the people into thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens, with a chief over each group as a judge. Only the difficult cases were then brought to Moses. It is noteworthy also that Moses, explaining to Jethro what he was doing, said: “In the event that [the people] have a case arise, it must come to me and I must judge between the one party and the other, and I must make known the decisions of the true God and his laws.” In this, Moses indicated that he recognized his duty to judge, not according to his own ideas, but according to Jehovah’s decisions and that, moreover, he had the responsibility to help the people to know and recognize God’s laws.—Ex 18:5-7, 13-27.

Moses repeatedly pointed to Jehovah, and not himself, as the real Leader. When the people began to complain about food, Moses told them: “Your murmurings are not against us [Moses and Aaron], but against Jehovah.” (Ex 16:3, 6-8) Possibly because Miriam felt her prominence might be eclipsed by the presence of Moses’ wife, she and Aaron jealously and disrespectfully began to speak against Moses and his authority. The record shows that their speech was all the more contemptible because it is at this point that it says: “The man Moses was by far the meekest of all the men who were upon the surface of the ground.” Moses apparently was hesitant to assert himself, meekly enduring the abuse. But Jehovah was incensed at this challenge, which was actually an affront to Jehovah himself. He took up the issue and severely chastised Miriam. Moses’ love for his sister moved him to intercede for her, crying out: “O God, please! Heal her, please!”—Nu 12:1-15.

Obedience, Waiting Upon Jehovah. Moses waited upon Jehovah. Though he is called Israel’s lawgiver, he recognized that the laws did not originate with him. He was not arbitrary, deciding matters on his own knowledge. In legal cases in which there was no precedent or where he could not discern exactly how to apply the law, he presented the matter to Jehovah to establish a judicial decision. (Le 24:10-16, 23; Nu 15:32-36; 27:1-11) He was careful to carry out instructions. In the intricate work of constructing the tabernacle and making its utensils and the priests’ garments, Moses exercised close oversight. The record reads: “And Moses proceeded to do according to all that Jehovah had commanded him. He did just so.” (Ex 40:16; compare Nu 17:11.) Repeatedly we find other statements that things were done “just as Jehovah had commanded Moses.” (Ex 39:1, 5, 21, 29, 31, 42; 40:19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29) It is good for Christians that he did so, for the apostle Paul points out that these things constituted “a shadow” and an illustration of heavenly things.—Heb 8:5.

Moses Stumbles. It was while Israel was encamped at Kadesh, probably in the 40th year of their wanderings, that Moses made a serious mistake. A consideration of the incident magnifies in our eyes the fact that Moses not only was in a highly privileged position but also was under very heavy responsibility to Jehovah as leader and mediator for the nation. Because of a water shortage the people began to quarrel bitterly with Moses, putting the blame on him for leading them up out of Egypt into the barren wilderness. Moses had endured much, putting up with the perverseness and insubordination of the Israelites, sharing their hardships, and interceding for them when they sinned, but here he momentarily lost his meekness and mildness of temper. Exasperated and embittered in spirit, Moses and Aaron stood before the people as Jehovah commanded. But instead of calling attention to Jehovah as the Provider, they spoke harshly to the people and directed attention to themselves, Moses saying: “Hear, now, you rebels! Is it from this crag that we shall bring out water for you?” With that, Moses struck the rock and Jehovah caused water to flow forth, sufficient for the multitude and their flocks. But God was displeased with the conduct of Moses and Aaron. They had failed of their primary responsibility, namely, to magnify Jehovah’s name. They “acted undutifully” toward Jehovah, and Moses had ‘spoken rashly with his lips.’ Later Jehovah decreed: “Because you did not show faith in me to sanctify me before the eyes of the sons of Israel, therefore you will not bring this congregation into the land that I shall certainly give them.”—Nu 20:1-13; De 32:50-52; Ps 106:32, 33.

A Writer. Moses was the writer of the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible, namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. His writership has been acknowledged by the Jews throughout their history, this section of the Bible being known by them as the Torah, or Law. Jesus and the Christian writers frequently speak of Moses as giving the Law. He is generally credited with writing the book of Job, also Psalm 90 and, possibly, 91.—Mt 8:4; Lu 16:29; 24:27; Ro 10:5; 1Co 9:9; 2Co 3:15; Heb 10:28.

His Death and Burial. Moses’ brother Aaron died at the age of 123 years while Israel was encamped at Mount Hor, on the frontier of Edom, in the fifth month of the 40th year of their journey. Moses took Aaron into the mountain, stripped off Aaron’s priestly garments, and clothed Aaron’s oldest living son and successor, Eleazar, with them. (Nu 20:22-29; 33:37-39) About six months later, Israel arrived at the Plains of Moab. Here Moses, in a series of discourses, explained the Law to the assembled nation, enlarging upon it with adjustments that would be necessary when Israel changed from nomadic camp life to a settled one in their own land. In the 12th month of the 40th year (in the spring of 1473 B.C.E.), he announced to the people that, according to Jehovah’s appointment, Joshua would succeed him as leader. Joshua was then commissioned and exhorted to be courageous. (De 31:1-3, 23) Finally, after reciting a song and blessing the people, Moses went up into Mount Nebo according to Jehovah’s command, first to view the Promised Land from this mountain vantage point, then to die.—De 32:48-51; 34:1-6.

Moses was 120 years of age at the time of his death. Testifying to his natural strength, the Bible comments: “His eye had not grown dim, and his vital strength had not fled.” He was buried by Jehovah in a location never since discovered. (De 34:5-7) Likely, this was to prevent the Israelites from being ensnared into false worship by making a shrine of his grave. Evidently the Devil desired to use Moses’ body for some such purpose, for Jude, the Christian disciple and half brother of Jesus Christ, writes: “When Michael the archangel had a difference with the Devil and was disputing about Moses’ body, he did not dare to bring a judgment against him in abusive terms, but said: ‘May Jehovah rebuke you.’” (Jude 9) Before crossing over into Canaan under the leadership of Joshua, Israel observed a 30-day mourning period for Moses.—De 34:8.

A Prophet Jehovah Knew “Face to Face.” When Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses’ authority, Jehovah told them: “If there came to be a prophet of yours for Jehovah, it would be in a vision I would make myself known to him. In a dream I would speak to him. Not so my servant Moses! He is being entrusted with all my house. Mouth to mouth I speak to him, thus showing him, and not by riddles; and the appearance of Jehovah is what he beholds. Why, then, did you not fear to speak against my servant, against Moses?” (Nu 12:6-8) The conclusion of the book of Deuteronomy describes Moses’ privileged standing with Jehovah: “But there has never yet risen up a prophet in Israel like Moses, whom Jehovah knew face to face, as respects all the signs and the miracles that Jehovah sent him to do in the land of Egypt to Pharaoh and all his servants and all his land, and as regards all the strong hand and all the great awesomeness that Moses exercised before the eyes of all Israel.”—De 34:10-12.

According to Jehovah’s words, Moses, though he never literally saw the very person of Jehovah, as mentioned in the foregoing, had a more direct, constant, intimate relationship with Jehovah than did any prophet prior to Jesus Christ. Jehovah’s statement: “Mouth to mouth I speak to him,” revealed that Moses had personal audience with God (by means of angels, who have access to the very presence of God; Mt 18:10). (Nu 12:8) As Israel’s mediator, he enjoyed a virtually continuous two-way conversational communication arrangement. He was able at any time to present problems of national importance and to receive God’s answer. Jehovah entrusted Moses ‘with all His house,’ using Moses as his intimate representative in organizing the nation. (Nu 12:7; Heb 3:2, 5) The later prophets simply continued to build on the foundation that had been laid through Moses.

The manner in which Jehovah dealt with Moses was so impressive that it was as if Moses actually had beheld God with his own eyes, instead of merely having a mental vision or a dream in which he heard God speak, which was the usual way in which God communicated with his prophets. Jehovah’s dealings with Moses were so real that Moses reacted as if he had seen “the One who is invisible.” (Heb 11:27) Evidently the impression made on Moses was similar to the effect of the transfiguration vision on Peter centuries later. The vision was so real to Peter that he began to participate in it, speaking but not realizing what he was saying. (Lu 9:28-36) And the apostle Paul likewise experienced a vision that was so real that he later said of himself: “Whether in the body I do not know, or out of the body I do not know; God knows.”—2Co 12:1-4.

No doubt Joshua’s extraordinary success in establishing Israel in the Promised Land came, to an extent, by reason of the fine qualities inculcated in him by Moses’ training and example. Joshua was Moses’ minister “from his young manhood on.” (Nu 11:28) Evidently he was army commander under Moses (Ex 17:9, 10) and was close to Moses as his attendant in many experiences.—Ex 24:13; 33:11; De 3:21.

Prefigured Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ made clear that Moses had written about him, for on one occasion he told his opponents: “If you believed Moses you would believe me, for that one wrote about me.” (Joh 5:46) “Commencing at Moses and all the Prophets,” when in the company of his disciples, Jesus “interpreted to them things pertaining to himself in all the Scriptures.”—Lu 24:27, 44; see also Joh 1:45.

Among the things Moses wrote concerning Christ Jesus are Jehovah’s words: “A prophet I shall raise up for them from the midst of their brothers, like you; and I shall indeed put my words in his mouth, and he will certainly speak to them all that I shall command him.” (De 18:18, 19) The apostle Peter in quoting this prophecy left no doubt that it referred to Jesus Christ.—Ac 3:19-23.

In the transfiguration scene that Peter, James, and John were permitted to view, Moses and Elijah were seen talking with Jesus. In Moses, the three apostles would see represented the Law covenant, the theocratic arrangement of the congregation, the deliverance of the nation, and its being safely transferred to the Promised Land. Thus the vision indicated that Jesus Christ would do a work like Moses did, but greater; also the visionary appearance of Elijah showed that he would do a work like that of Elijah, but in a larger way. It was there plainly manifested that the Son of God was indeed the ‘prophet greater than Moses’ and worthy of the title Messiah.—Mt 17:1-3; see TRANSFIGURATION.

In many ways there was pictorial correspondency between these two great prophets, Moses and Jesus Christ. In infancy both escaped the wholesale slaughter ordered by the respective rulers of their time. (Ex 1:22; 2:1-10; Mt 2:13-18) Moses was called out of Egypt with Jehovah’s “firstborn,” the nation of Israel, Moses being the nation’s leader. Jesus was called out of Egypt as God’s firstborn Son. (Ex 4:22, 23; Ho 11:1; Mt 2:15, 19-21) Both fasted for 40 days in wilderness places. (Ex 34:28; Mt 4:1, 2) Both came in the name of Jehovah, Jesus’ name itself meaning “Jehovah Is Salvation.” (Ex 3:13-16; Mt 1:21; Joh 5:43) Jesus, like Moses, ‘declared the name of Jehovah.’ (De 32:3; Joh 17:6, 26) Both were exceptional in meekness and humility. (Nu 12:3; Mt 11:28-30) Both had the most convincing credentials to show that they were sent by God—astounding miracles of many sorts, Jesus Christ going farther than Moses by raising dead persons to life.—Ex 14:21-31; Ps 78:12-54; Mt 11:5; Mr 5:38-43; Lu 7:11-15, 18-23.

Moses was mediator of the Law covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Jesus was Mediator of the new covenant between God and the “holy nation,” the spiritual “Israel of God.” (1Pe 2:9; Ga 6:16; Ex 19:3-9; Lu 22:20; Heb 8:6; 9:15) Both served as judges, lawgivers, and leaders. (Ex 18:13; 32:34; Da 9:25; Mal 4:4; Mt 23:10; Joh 5:22, 23; 13:34; 15:10) Moses was entrusted with and proved faithful to his stewardship in the ‘house of God,’ that is, the nation, or congregation, of Israel. Jesus showed faithfulness over God’s house that he as God’s Son constructed, namely, the nation, or congregation, of spiritual Israel. (Nu 12:7; Heb 3:2-6) And even in death there was a parallel: God disposed of the bodies of both Moses and Jesus.—De 34:5, 6; Ac 2:31; Jude 9.

Toward the end of Moses’ 40-year sojourn in the wilderness, while he was shepherding his father-in-law’s flock, God’s angel made a miraculous manifestation to him in the flame of a thornbush at the foot of Mount Horeb. Jehovah there commissioned him to deliver His people from Egypt. (Ex 3:1-15) Thus God appointed Moses as His prophet and representative, and Moses could now correctly be called an anointed one, or “Christ.” In order to come into that privileged position, Moses had had to give up “the treasures of Egypt” and let himself “be ill-treated with the people of God” and thus suffer reproach. But to Moses such “reproach of the Christ” was riches greater than all of Egypt’s wealth.—Heb 11:24-26.

A parallel to this is found in Jesus Christ. According to the angel’s announcement at his birth in Bethlehem, he was to become “a Savior, who is Christ the Lord.” He became Christ, or Anointed One, after the prophet John baptized him in the Jordan River. (Lu 2:10, 11; 3:21-23; 4:16-21) Thereafter he acknowledged that he was “the Christ,” or Messiah. (Mt 16:16, 17; Mr 14:61, 62; Joh 4:25, 26) Jesus Christ also kept his eye on the prize and despised the shame that men heaped upon him, as Moses had done. (Php 2:8, 9; Heb 12:2) It is into this Greater Moses that the Christian congregation is baptized—into Jesus Christ, the foretold Prophet, Liberator, and Leader.—1Co 10:1, 2.

ISAIAH

(I·sa´iah) [Salvation of Jehovah].

A prophet, the son of Amoz (not the prophet Amos). He served Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah. (Isa 1:1) Kings Pekah and Hoshea were ruling in the northern kingdom of Israel, which ended in 740 B.C.E., during the time of Isaiah’s prophetic service. Contemporary prophets were Micah, Hosea, and Oded. Isaiah evidently began his prophesying later than Hosea did and before Micah began.—2Ch 28:9; Ho 1:1; Mic 1:1.

During Isaiah’s prophetic service to Judah, especially in the days of King Ahaz, the kingdom was in a deplorable moral state. It was full of revolt on the part of both princes and people, and in Jehovah’s eyes the nation was sick in the heart and in the head. The rulers were called “dictators of Sodom” and the people likened to “people of Gomorrah.” (Isa 1:2-10) Isaiah was told in advance that their ears would be unresponsive. Jehovah said that this situation would continue until the nation would come to ruin and that only “a tenth,” “a holy seed,” would be left like the stump of a massive tree. Isaiah’s prophetic work must have comforted and strengthened the faith of that small number, even though the rest of the nation refused to take heed.—Isa 6:1-13.

Though concentrating on Judah, Isaiah also uttered prophecies concerning Israel and the nations round about, as they had a bearing on Judah’s situation and history. He enjoyed a long term in the prophetic office, starting in about 778 B.C.E., when King Uzziah died, or possibly earlier, and continuing until sometime after the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign (732 B.C.E.).—Isa 36:1, 2; 37:37, 38.

Isaiah’s Family. Isaiah was married. His wife is called “the prophetess” (Isa 8:3), which seems to mean more than merely the wife of a prophet. Evidently, like Deborah of the time of the Judges and like Huldah during Josiah’s reign, she had a prophetic assignment from Jehovah.—Jg 4:4; 2Ki 22:14.

The Bible names two sons of Isaiah, given to him as “signs and as miracles in Israel.” (Isa 8:18) Shear-jashub was old enough in the days of Ahaz to accompany his father when Isaiah delivered a message to that king. The name Shear-jashub means “A Mere Remnant (Those Remaining Over) Will Return.” This name was prophetic in that, just as certainly as a son born to Isaiah was given that name, so the kingdom of Judah would in time be overthrown and only a mere remnant would return after a period of exile. (Isa 7:3; 10:20-23) This return of a small remnant took place in 537 B.C.E. when King Cyrus of Persia issued a decree liberating them from Babylon after an exile of 70 years.—2Ch 36:22, 23; Ezr 1:1; 2:1, 2.

Another son of Isaiah was named prior to conception, and the name was written on a tablet and attested to by reliable witnesses. Apparently the matter was kept secret until after the birth of the son, when the witnesses could come forward and testify to the prophet’s foretelling of the birth, thereby proving the matter to have prophetic significance. The name given to the boy by God’s command was Maher-shalal-hash-baz, meaning “Hurry, O Spoil! He Has Made Haste to the Plunder; or, Hurrying to the Spoil, He Has Made Haste to the Plunder.” It was said that before this son would know how to call out, “My father!” and “My mother!” the threat to Judah existing from the conspiracy of Syria and the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel would be removed.—Isa 8:1-4.

The prophecy indicated that relief would come to Judah soon; relief did come when Assyria interfered with the campaign against Judah by King Rezin of Syria and King Pekah of Israel. The Assyrians captured Damascus and, later, in 740 B.C.E., despoiled and destroyed the kingdom of Israel, fully carrying out the prophetic meaning of the boy’s name. (2Ki 16:5-9; 17:1-6) However, instead of trusting in Jehovah, King Ahaz tried to stave off the threat made by Syria and Israel, resorting to bribery of the king of Assyria to gain his protection. Because of this, Jehovah allowed Assyria to become a great threat to Judah and actually to flood into the land right up to Jerusalem itself, as Isaiah had warned.—Isa 7:17-20.

Isaiah spoke many times of “signs” that Jehovah would give, among them being his two sons and, in one instance, Isaiah himself. Jehovah commanded him to walk about naked and barefoot for three years as a sign and a portent against Egypt and against Ethiopia, signifying that they would be led captive by the king of Assyria.—Isa 20:1-6; compare Isa 7:11, 14; 19:20; 37:30; 38:7, 22; 55:13; 66:19.

Prophecies of Exile and Restoration. Isaiah was also privileged to foretell that Assyria would not be the nation to dethrone the kings of Judah and destroy Jerusalem, but that this would be done by Babylon. (Isa 39:6, 7) At the time when Assyria flooded Judah “up to the neck,” Isaiah delivered the comforting message to King Hezekiah that the Assyrian forces would not be able to enter the city. (Isa 8:7, 8) Jehovah backed up His word by sending an angel to destroy 185,000 of the Assyrian army’s mighty men and leaders, thus delivering Jerusalem.—2Ch 32:21.

The thing that undoubtedly gave Isaiah the greatest joy was the privilege accorded him by Jehovah to speak and to write many prophecies of restoration of his beloved Jerusalem. Although Jehovah would allow the people to go into exile to Babylon because of rebellion and revolt against him, God would in time judge Babylon because she acted out of malice and intended to hold God’s people in captivity forever. A number of Isaiah’s prophecies are devoted to God’s judgment on Babylon and the desolate ruin she would become, never to be rebuilt.—Isa 45:1, 2; chaps 13, 14, 46-48.

The restoration prophecies that are found throughout the book of Isaiah glorify Jehovah’s undeserved kindness and mercy toward his people and toward all mankind. They foretell the time when Jerusalem would be elevated to a new position with Jehovah, a glory that would be seen by all nations, and when she would be a blessing to all nations. Jerusalem was indeed restored and rebuilt and was blessed by the presence of the Messiah, who “shed light upon life and incorruption through the good news.” (2Ti 1:10) Jerusalem’s restoration also had a greater and grander fulfillment to come.—Ro 15:4; 1Co 10:11; Ga 4:25, 26.

Effects of Isaiah’s Work. Isaiah wrote not only the Bible book bearing his name but also evidently at least one historical book, the affairs of King Uzziah, which no doubt formed part of the official records of the nation. (2Ch 26:22) In faithfully carrying out the prophetic work assigned to him by Jehovah, he had a strong influence on the nation’s history, particularly as a result of his counseling and guiding righteous King Hezekiah. Many of Isaiah’s prophecies also have a larger fulfillment in the Messiah and his Kingdom. Isaiah’s book is quoted or referred to many times in the Christian Greek Scriptures. In many instances the Christian writers make application of Isaiah’s prophecies to Jesus Christ or point to a fulfillment of his prophecies in their day.

JOB

[Object of Hostility].

A man living in the land of Uz, in what is now Arabia. (Job 1:1) God said concerning Job: “There is no one like him in the earth, a man blameless and upright, fearing God and turning aside from bad.” (Job 1:8) This would indicate that Job lived in Uz at about the time that his distant cousins, the 12 tribes of Israel, were in slavery down in the land of Egypt. By then Joseph the son of Jacob (Israel) had died (1657 B.C.E.) after he had endured much unjust suffering but had kept his blamelessness toward Jehovah God. Moses had not yet risen up as Jehovah’s prophet to lead the 12 tribes of Israel out of Egyptian slavery. Between Joseph’s death and the time when Moses by his conduct showed himself to be blameless and upright, there was no human with integrity like Job’s. It was likely during this period that the conversations involving Job took place between Jehovah and Satan.—Job 1:6-12; 2:1-7.

Moses is generally credited with writing the account of Job’s experiences. He could have known about Job when he spent 40 years in Midian and may have heard of Job’s final outcome and death when Israel was near Uz toward the end of its wilderness journey. If Moses completed the book of Job about the time of Israel’s entry into the Promised Land in 1473 B.C.E. (probably not long after Job’s death), this would place the time of Job’s trial about 1613 B.C.E., for Job lived 140 years after his trial was over.—Job 42:16, 17.

Job was a relative of Abraham, both being descendants of Shem. Though not an Israelite, Job was a worshiper of Jehovah. He was “the greatest of all the Orientals,” possessing great wealth. His family consisted of his wife, seven sons, and three daughters. (Job 1:1-3) He conscientiously performed duties as a priest for his family, offering sacrifices to God in their behalf.—Job 1:4, 5.

Job was a figure of importance in the gate of the city, even aged men and princes giving him respect. (Job 29:5-11) He sat as an impartial judge, executing justice as a champion of the widow, and was like a father to the fatherless boy, the afflicted, and those who had no help. (Job 29:12-17) He kept himself clean from immorality, greedy materialism, and idolatry, and he was generous to the poor and needy.—Job 31:9-28.

Job’s Integrity. Job’s integrity to Jehovah was challenged by Satan. Then Jehovah, with confidence in that integrity and knowing His own ability to recover and reward Job, permitted Satan to test Job’s integrity to the limit, but he did not allow Satan to kill Job. Although Satan, through various means, took away first Job’s livestock and servants and then his children (Job 1:13-19), Job never charged God with folly or wrongdoing. Neither did he turn away from God, even when pressure was brought upon him by his own wife and by others. (Job 1:20-22; 2:9, 10) He spoke the truth about God. (Job 42:8) He accepted reproof for being too anxious to declare himself righteous and neglecting to vindicate God (Job 32:2), and he acknowledged his sins to God.—Job 42:1-6.

Jehovah loved Job. At the end of Job’s faithful course under test, God constituted him a priest for his three companions who had contended with him, and God restored Job to his former status. He again had a fine family (evidently by the same wife) and double the wealth he had previously possessed. All his relatives and former associates returned to pay respect to him and to bring him gifts. (Job 42:7-15) He lived to see his sons and his grandsons to four generations.—Job 42:16.

Through the prophet Ezekiel, God pointed to Job as an example of righteousness. (Eze 14:14, 20) His patient endurance of suffering is set before Christians as a pattern, and his happy outcome is pointed to as magnifying Jehovah’s affection and mercy. (Jas 5:11) The account of his trialsome experience gives great comfort and strength to Christians, and many Bible principles are highlighted and illuminated by the book bearing his name.

LAZARUS

(Laz´a·rus) [probably the Gr. form of the Heb. name Eleazar, meaning “God Has Helped”].

1. The brother of Martha and Mary; his resurrection was one of the outstanding miracles performed by Jesus Christ. (Joh 11:1, 2) Jesus had a deep love for this family living at Bethany, “about two miles” from Jerusalem on the road to Jericho. (Joh 11:5, 18, ftn) He had been entertained at their home, perhaps frequently.—Lu 10:38-42.

The two sisters sent word to Jesus, who was at that time across the Jordan River, that their brother Lazarus was very sick. Doubtless they entertained the hope that Jesus would cure him. (Joh 11:3, 21, 32) However, instead of going to Bethany immediately, or curing Lazarus from a distance, as in the case of the manservant of an army officer (Mt 8:5-13), Jesus stayed where he was for two more days. Upon his arrival in the vicinity of Bethany he was met by Martha and then by Mary. Lazarus had expired and had been dead for four days.—Joh 11:6, 17, 20, 30-32.

When speaking to Martha, Jesus took the occasion to stress the resurrection. (Joh 11:23-27) He was soon to give added meaning to his words. Upon arriving at the tomb or cave where Lazarus was interred, Christ ordered that the stone sealing its entrance be taken away. Then in prayer to his heavenly Father, Jesus showed that one reason these events were taking place was “in order that they [the crowd present] might believe that you sent me forth.” (Joh 11:38-42) Jesus then called the dead Lazarus out of the tomb, and he emerged, undoubtedly to the astonishment and joy of those present.—Joh 11:43, 44.

This miracle moved many to put faith in Jesus, but it also caused the chief priests and Pharisees to plot his death. The anger of the chief priests was further aroused when a great crowd of Jews came to see not only Jesus but also the resurrected Lazarus. Because of Lazarus, many Jews were putting faith in Jesus, and so the chief priests took counsel to kill Lazarus also. (Joh 11:45-53; 12:1-11) However, there is no Biblical evidence to the effect that these religious foes carried out their evil plans against Lazarus.

John’s account of the resurrection of Lazarus has been assailed by some critics of the Bible. They point to the silence of the other Gospel accounts regarding this event. A consideration of the various Gospels will show, however, that even the writers of the synoptic Gospels did not each recount every deed of Jesus. For example, only Luke reported the raising of the son of the widow of Nain. (Lu 7:11-15) John did not customarily repeat what others had recorded. The resurrection of Lazarus is a notable instance of this.

This miracle of Lazarus’ resurrection served well as part of Jesus’ ministry, both to illustrate the power of the Son of God and to increase faith in him and the resurrection. (Joh 11:4, 41, 42) It evidently occurred near the beginning of the year 33 C.E. The Scriptures do not furnish information as to the circumstances, place, or time of Lazarus’ death after his resurrection.—See RESURRECTION (Resurrections before ransom was given).

There is no Biblical statement nor any reason to link the historical Lazarus with the beggar of Jesus’ illustration of the rich man and Lazarus.

2. The name given to the beggar in Jesus’ illustration commonly known as the parable of the rich man and Lazarus. (Lu 16:19-31) In the Vulgate the word “rich” has been rendered by the Latin adjective dives, which is often mistakenly used as the proper name of the rich man. However, the Jewish name Lazarus itself was common in ancient times, a fact borne out by ossuary inscriptions.

In the parable, the ulcerous beggar, Lazarus, was put at the gate of the rich man, desiring to be fed with the things that fell from the rich man’s sumptuous table. Lazarus subsequently died and was carried off by angels to the bosom position of Abraham (a place comparable to that occupied by a person in ancient times when he reclined in front of another on the same couch during a meal). Abraham had a conversation with the rich man, who had also died, was buried, and was in Hades, existing in torments. “A great chasm” that could not be crossed separated the rich man from Abraham and Lazarus. The rich man’s request that Abraham send Lazarus to his five brothers to “give them a thorough witness,” in the hope of sparing them the same experience, met with rejection on the grounds that these had “Moses and the Prophets,” and, if unwilling to listen to them, “neither will they be persuaded if someone rises from the dead.”—See ILLUSTRATIONS.

For Jesus’ illustration of the rich man and Lazarus, did he draw on rabbinic beliefs concerning the dead?

Teachers and students of comparative religion have in some cases suggested that in giving this illustration, Jesus Christ drew upon the ancient rabbinic concept and teaching regarding the underworld. Josephus furnishes the following information regarding the then-current view of the Pharisees in this regard: “They believe that souls have power to survive death and that there are rewards and punishments under the earth for those who have led lives of virtue or vice: eternal imprisonment is the lot of evil souls, while the good souls receive an easy passage to a new life.” (Jewish Antiquities, XVIII, 14 [i, 3]) However, Jesus flatly rejected false teachings, including those of the Pharisees. (Mt 23) Hence, it would have been inconsistent for him to frame his illustration of the rich man and Lazarus according to the outlines of the false rabbinic concept of the underworld. Consequently, it must be concluded that Jesus had in mind the fulfillment of the illustration and framed its details and movement in harmony with the facts of the fulfillment rather than according to any unscriptural teaching.

The context and the wording of the story show clearly that it is a parable and not an actual historical account. Poverty is not being extolled, nor are riches being condemned. Rather, conduct, final rewards, and a reversal in the spiritual status, or condition, of those represented by Lazarus and by the rich man are evidently indicated. The fact that the rich man’s brothers rejected Moses and the prophets also shows that the illustration had a deeper meaning and purpose than that of contrasting poverty and the possession of riches.